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Selasa, 12 Mei 2015

Affirmative Agreement, Negation of a Statement, Command

Affirmative Agreement
Untuk menghilangkan pengulangan kata pada suatu kalimat kita bisa menggunakan kata “so”atau “too”. Ada perbedaan pada susunan kalimatnya ketika menggunaan kata “so” dan “too”. Silahkan perhatikan rumus berikut:
Ketika hanya ada “to be” pada klausa utama (main clause), maka tenses yang sama dari “to be” digunakan pada klausa kedua (second clause).
Contohnya:
1.     I am hungry = I am hungry, and you are too.
2.    You are hungry = I am hungry, and so are you.

Affirmative statement (to be) + and +                 Subject + to be + too
                                                                              So + to be + subject

Contoh kalimat lainnya:
1.     Their plane is arriving at 7 o’clock, and so is mine.
2.    I am sick, and He is too.
3.    Our class is clean, and so are theirs.
4.    Bella is beautiful, and her sister is too.
5.    My hand writing is bad, and so are you.

Ketika hanya ada kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verb), contohnya: will, should, has, have, must, etc pada klausa utama (main clause), kata kerja bantu nya (auxiliary verb) juga digunakan pada klausa kedua (second clause).
Contohnya:
1.     He has seen her plays = He has seen her plays, and the girls have too.
2.    The girls have seen her plays = He has seen her plays, and so have the girls.

Affirmative statement + and +                              Subject + auxiliary verb only + too
       (auxiliary verb)                                                So + auxiliary verb only + subject

Contoh kalimat lainnya:
1.     They will go at noon, and she will too.
2.    He has an early appointment, and so have I.
3.    They have written their lyrics, and so have we.
4.    Richard has lived in Cuba for five years, and they have too.
5.    I should finish the report, and she should too.

Ketika hanya ada kata kerja (verb) tanpa auxiliary verb pada klausa utama (main clause), kata kerja bantu do, does, atau did digunakan pada klausa kedua (second clause) dan tenses nya harus sama.
Contohnya:
1.     We go to school = We go to school, and my brother does too.
2.    My brother goes to school = We go to school, and so does my brother.

Affirmative statement + and +                              Subject + (do, does, did) + too
(single verb except ”to be”)                                    So + (do, does, did) + subject

Contoh kalimat lainnya:
1.     We want to buy a fountain, and she does too.
2.    My mother likes traveling, and so do their mother.
3.    My brother invites him to the party, and my sister does too.
4.    They wrote a good poem, and so did he.
5.    Fred cooked fried rice for his breakfast, and Tina did too.

Negative Agreement
“Either” dan “neither” memiliki fungsi yang sama seperti kata “too” dan “so” pada klausa kedua (second clause) dalam kalimat positif (affirmative sentence/ agreement). Kata “Either”dan “neither” ini digunakan untuk mengindikasikan kalimat negative (negative sentence/ agreement). Aturan yang sama juga berlaku untuk penggunaan “to be”, “auxiliary verb” (kata kerja bantu), dan “verb” (kata kerja).
Contohnya:
1.  I didn’t go to the mosque yesterday, and Ali didn’t either.
2.  I didn’t go to the mosque yesterday, and neither did Ali.

Negative statement + and +                   Subject + negative auxiliary or “to be” + either
                                                                Neither + positive auxiliary or “to be” + subject

Contoh kalimat lainnya:
1.     The manager isn’t too happy with the project, and neither is his assistant.
2.    We can’t study in the library, and he can’t either.
3.    You didn’t pay the taxes, and they didn’t either.
4.    My brother won’t accept my father’s decision, and my sister won’t either.
5.    He doesn’t know the answer, and neither does she.
Negation of a Statement



Example 1:  Examine the sentences below.
1.Every triangle has three sides.
2.Albany is the capital of New York State.
3.No prime number is even.
Each of these sentences is a closed sentence.
Definition:   closed sentence is an objective statement which is either true or false.

Thus, each closed sentence in Example 1 has a truth value of either true or false as shown below.
1.Every triangle has three sides.true
2.Albany is the capital of New York State.true
3.No prime number is even.false

Note that the third sentence is false since 2 is a prime number. It is possible that a closed sentence will have different truth values at different times. This is demonstrated in Example 2 below.

Example 2:
1.Today is Tuesday.
2.Bill Clinton is the President of the United States.

Example 3:  Examine the sentences below.
1.x + 3 = 7
2.She passed math.
3.y - 4 = 11
4.He is my brother.
The sentences in Example 3 are open sentences.
Definition: An open sentence is a statement which contains a variable and becomes either true or false depending on the value that replaces the variable.

Let's take another look at Example 3.  This time we will Identify the variable for each open sentence.

1.x + 3 = 7The variable is x.
2.She passed math.The variable is she.
3.y - 4 = 11The variable is y.
4.He is my brother.The variable is he.

Now that we have identified the variables, we can analyze the meaning of these open sentences. Sentence 1 is true if x is replaced by 4, but false if x is replaced by a number other than 4. Sentence 3 is true if y is replaced by 15, but false otherwise. Sentence 2 is either true or false depending on the value of the variable "she." Similarly, sentence 4 is either true or false depending on the value of the variable "he." In summary,  the truth value of each open sentence depends on what value is used to replace the variable in that sentence.

Example 4:
Given:Let p represent, "Baseball is a sport."
Let q represent, "There are 100 cents in a dollar."
Let r represent, "She does her homework."
Let s represent, "A dime is not a coin."
Problem:Write each sentence below using symbols and indicate if it is true, false or open.
1.A dime is a coin.~strue
2.Baseball is not a sport.~pfalse
3.She does her homework.ropen
4.There are not 100 cents in a dollar.~qfalse
5.She does not do her homework.~ropen
6.Baseball is a sport.ptrue

Example 5:
Given:Let p represent the closed sentence "The number 9 is odd."
Problem:What does ~p mean?
In Example 5 we are asked to find the negation of p.
Definition: The negation of statement p is "not p."  The negation of p is symbolized by "~p."  The truth value of ~p is the opposite of the truth value of p.
Solution:  Since p is true, ~p must be false.
p:The number 9 is odd.true
~p:The number 9 is not odd.false

Let's look at some more examples of negation.
Example 6:
r:7 < 5false
~r: 5true

Example 7:
a:The product of two negative numbers is a positive number.true
~a:The product of two negative numbers is not a positive number.false

We can construct a truth table to determine all possible truth values of a statement and its negation.
Definition:  truth table helps us find all possible truth values of a statement.  Each statement is either True (T) or False (F), but not both.
Connection:  To help us remember this definition, think of a computer, which is either on or off, but not both.

Example 8:  Construct a truth table for the negation of x.
Solution:
x~x
TF
FT

In Example 8, when x is true, ~x is false; and when x is false, ~x is true. From this truth table, we can see that a statement and its negation have opposite truth values.

Example 9:  Construct a truth table for the negation of p.
Solution:
p~p
TF
FT
We can also negate a negation. For example, the negation of ~p is  ~(~p) or p.  This is illustrated in the example below.
Example 10:  Construct a truth table for the negation of p, and for the negation of not p.
Solution:
p~p~(~p)
TFT
FTF


Summary: A statement is a sentence that is either true or false. A closed sentence is an objective statement which is either true or false. An open sentence is a statement which contains a variable and becomes either true or false depending on the value that replaces the variable. The negation of statement p is "not p", symbolized by "~p". A statement and its negation have opposite truth values.
PENGERTIAN COMMAND AND REQUEST
· Command : is a sentence that orders someone to do something. It ends with a period(.) or an exclamation mark(!)
· Request : is a sentence that asks someone to do something. It ends with a period (.) or a question mark(?).
PERBEDAAN COMMAND AND REQUEST
Command :
 -menggunakan kata kerja untuk pengganti “lah” dalam Bahasa Indonesia
-diakhiri dengan tanda titik (.) atau tanda seru (!)
-digunakan untuk kalimat perintah
-bisa juga menggunakan be sebagai kata kerjanya
-tidak boleh dipendekan menjadi don’t atau sejenisnya
Request :
 -menggunakan tanda titik (.) atau tanda tanya (?) untuk mengakhiri kalimat
-digunakan untuk bertanya atau meminta seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu
-sering menggunakan kata-kata seperti could, would, dll
CONTOH KALIMAT DALAM COMMAND
1. Come here!
2. Open page 21.
3. Write your name on the paper.
4. Do not go there.
5. Go to bed room now.
6. Close the window.
7. Open the door.
8. Be diligent.
9. Do your homework.
10. Sit down!
CONTOH KALIMAT REQUEST
1. Could you help me please?
2. Would you answer the phone?
3. Open the window please
4. Please buy some egg at the market
5. Would you come to my party?
6. Could you write the latter for me?
7. Bring me the glasess please
8. Could you turn on the light?
9. Would you like to join the group?
10. Could you bring my umberella please?

Sumber :
http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol9/negation.html
http://bahasainggrisonandNegativeAgreement013/04/elliptical-constructions.html
http://elsadenovia.blogspot.com/2014/05/affirmative-agreement-and-negative.html
http://hedwigsite.blogspot.com/2012/04/command-and-request.html

Subject & Verb Agreement

Although you are probably already familiar with basic subject-verb agreement, this chapter begins with a quick review of basic agreement rules.
Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).  Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural.
In the present tense, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways: nouns ADD an s to the singular form; verbs REMOVE the s from the singular form.
                                     
These agreement rules do not apply to verbs used in the simple past tense without any helping verbs.
                  
The agreement rules do, however, apply to the following helping verbs when they are used with a main verb: is-arewas-werehas-havedoes-do.
                      
The agreement rules do not apply to has-have when used as the SECOND helping verb in a pair. 
                     
They do NOT apply to any other helping verbs, such as can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must.
                 
The subject-verb agreement rules apply to all personal pronouns except I and you, which, although SINGULAR, require PLURAL forms of verbs.
  
Now click on the link below to do exercise 1.  
       Link to Exercise 1
The remainder of this teaching unit deals with some more advanced subject-verb agreement rules and with exceptions to the original subject-verb agreement rule
Compound Subject
  The word “compound” means “made up of two or more parts.”  Two or more words can be compounded or linked by joining them with any of three words:
                                               andor, and nor
Here are some examples of compounding:
              
Compound nouns can function as a “compound subject.”  In some instances, a compound subject poses special problems for the subject-verb agreement rule (+s, -s).
 
However, instead of using two sentences (as above), we may choose to give the above information in one sentence.
                      
This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined by and), illustrating a new rule about subject-verb agreement.
Although each part of the compound subject is singular (ranger and camper), taken together (joined by and), each one becomes a part of a plural structure and, therefore, must take a plural verb (see) to agree in the sentence.
SUBJECT-VERB RULE #1 – Two or more singular (or plural) subjects joined by and act as a plural compound subject and take a plural verb (singular + singular = plural).
You can check the verb by substituting the pronoun they for the compound subject.
                        
Or and nor as joiners work somewhat differently from and.  While the word and seems to ADD things together, or and nor do not.  They suggest a CHOICE.
                    
Look at this sentence.
                   
This sentence makes use of a compound subject (two subject nouns joined together by or).  Each part of the compound subject (ranger, camper) is singular.  Even though both words function together as subject (joined by or), the subject still remains SINGULAR (ranger or camper) since a CHOICE is implied.
This compound subject, therefore, requires a singular verb to agree with it.
SUBJECT-VERB RULE #2 – Two or more SINGULAR subjects joined by or (or nor) act as a singular compound subject and, therefore, take a singular verb to agree.
Note:  Two or more plural subjects joined by or (or nor) would naturally take a plural verb to agree.
                          
However, or and nor can pose a more difficult problem.
Thus far we have been working with compound subjects whose individual parts are both either singular or plural
      
 What if one part of the compound subject is singular and the other part is plural?
              
What form of a verb should be used in this case?  Should the verb be singular to agree with one word?  Or should the verb be plural to agree with the other?
Solution:
1.      If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by and, always use a plural verb.
                        
2.      If the individual parts of the compound subject are joined by or or nor, use the verb form (singular or plural) which will agree with the subject closer to the verb.
       
Now click on the link below to do exercise 2.  
       Link to Exercise 2
Some nouns which name groups can be either singular or plural depending upon their meaning in individual sentences.
                              
Because they can describe either the individuals in the group (more than one – plural), or the group as a single entity (one only – singular), these nouns pose special problems.
However, there are some guidelines for deciding which verb form (singular or plural) to use with one of these nouns as the subject in a sentence.
If we refer to the group as a whole and, therefore, as a single unit, we consider the noun singular.  In this case, we use a singular verb. 
                  
If, on the other hand, we are actually referring to the individuals within the group, then we consider the noun plural.  In this case, we use a plural verb.
         
Of course group nouns, like other nouns, can also appear in plural forms (with an s).
                      
When used in the plural form, group nouns mean MORE THAN ONE GROUP.  Thus, it uses a plural verb.
                 
Thus, there are three important subject – verb agreement rules to remember when a group noun is used as the subject:
1.      Group nouns can be considered as a single unit, and, thus, take a singular verb.
2.      Group nouns can be considered as individual members within a single unit and, thus, take a plural verb.
3.      Group nouns can be given plural forms to mean two or more units and, thus, take a plural verb.
Now click on the link below to do exercise 3.  
        Link to Exercise 3

Plural Form / Singular Meaning Nouns
Some nouns are regularly plural in form, but singular in meaning.
                            
Even though these nouns APPEAR to be plural because they end in s, they actually refer to only one thing made up of smaller, uncounted parts.  Therefore, they are consideredsingular.
                  
You can see that substituting that pronoun it instead of they makes more sense here.
Another group of plural form nouns end in –ics.
                     
Similarly, it is a more suitable substitute for any of these words than is they.
These nouns appear to be plural (end in s), but generally refer to only one thing and are, therefore, generally considered singular.
              
NOTE:  Occasionally, however, the –ics nouns can have a plural meaning:  We can speak about individual parts of these wholes.  In this case, we apply the same rule as applies to group nouns when we consider the individual members within the group (see Section 3.3):  We use a plural verb.
Note the difference in meaning and, therefore, in the verb chosen (singular or plural) between the two uses of the –ics noun, statistics.
       
Now click on the link below to do exercise 4.  
        Link to Exercise 4
Indefinite pronouns can pose special problems in subject – verb agreement.
The difficulty is that some indefinite pronouns sound plural when they are really singular.
As subjects, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take singular verbs.  Look at them closely.
                  
                                                  These should be easy to remember.
                
However, the following indefinite pronouns ALWAYS take plural verbs.
                                  
              
EXCEPTIONS:
A third group of indefinite pronouns takes either a singular or plural verb depending on the pronoun’s meaning in the sentence.  Look at them closely.
                                      (“SANAM”)
   
Now click on the link below to do exercise 5.  
        Link to Exercise 5
So far we have considered subjects that can cause subject-verb agreement confusion: compound subjects, group noun subjects, plural form – singular meaning subjects, andindefinite subjects.
The remainder of this teaching unit examines subject – verb agreement problems that can result from word placement in sentences.  There are four main problems: prepositional phrasesclauses beginning with whothat, or whichsentences beginning with here or there, and questions.
              
                                      
Here is a list of frequently used prepositions:
                              
A prepositional phrase may be placed between the subject and verb.
                    
In the above example, the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject boy.
Sometimes, however, a prepositional phrase inserted between the subject and verb makes agreement more difficult.
      
Car is the singular subject.  Was is the singular helping verb which agrees with car.  If we aren’t careful, however, we may mistakenly label riders as the subject since it is nearerto the verb than car is.  If we choose the plural noun, riders, we will incorrectly select the plural verb were.
      
Solution to the Prepositional Phrase Problem
1.      Learn the major prepositions (see page 28).
2.      Be alert for prepositional phrases placed between the subject and verb, and identify the noun in the phrase immediately as the object of a preposition: An object of a preposition can NEVER be a sentence subject.
3.      Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb which agrees with it.
                 
4.      Remember the indefinite pronoun EXCEPTIONS considered in Section 3.5, p.18:  SomeAnyNoneAll, and Most.  The number of these subject words IS affected by a prepositional phrase between the subject and verb.
Now click on the link below to do exercise 6.  
        Link to Exercise 6
A clause beginning with whothat, or which and coming BETWEEN the subject and verb can cause agreement problems.
Like the prepositional phrase, the who / that / which clause never contains the subject.
  
TO AVOID SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT ERRORS  . . .
1.      Identify who / that / which clauses immediately.
              
2.  Locate the true sentence subject and choose a verb that agrees with it.
             
Now click on the link below to do exercise 7.  
        Link to Exercise 7
When a sentence begins with there is – there are / here is – here are, the subject and verb are inverted.  After all that you have learned already, you will undoubtedly find this topic a relatively easy one!
                      
The verb in such constructions is obviously is or are.  The subject, however, does not come BEFORE the verb.
Instead, the subject in this kind of sentence comes AFTER the verb, so you must look for it AFTER the verb. 
                
In this example, because the subject, book, is singular, the verb must also be singular.
If the subject is plural, however, then the verb must be plural.
                      
In this example, because the subject, books, is plural, the verb is also plural.
Remember: In here is – here are / there is – there are constructions, look for the subject AFTER the verb and choose a singular (is) or a plural (are) verb to agree with the subject.
And finally, sometimes creating a question will cause the subject to follow the verb as well. Here, identify the subject and then choose the verb that agrees with it (singular or plural).
                      
      
sumber : http://www.towson.edu/ows/moduleSVAGR.htm